Terraforming Mars Mars already consists of many soil minerals that could theoretically be used for terraforming. Large amounts of water ice exist below the Martian surface, as well as on the surface at the poles, where it is mixed with dry ice, frozen CO2. It has been found that significant amounts of water are stored in the south pole of Mars, and if all of this ice suddenly melted, it would form a planetwide ocean 11 meters deep. Frozen carbon dioxide (CO2) at the poles sublimates into the atmosphere during the Martian summer, and small amounts of water residue are left behind, which fast winds sweep off the poles at speeds approaching 250 mph (400 km/h). This seasonal occurrence transports large amounts of dust and water vapor into the atmosphere, giving potential for Earth-like cirrus clouds. Terraforming Mars would entail three major interlaced changes: building up the atmosphere, keeping it warm, and keeping the atmosphere from being lost into outer space. The atmosphere of Mars is relatively thin and thus has a very low surface pressure of 0.6 kilopascals (0.087 psi); compared to Earth with 101.3 kilopascals (14.69 psi) at sea level and 0.86 kilopascals (0.125 psi) at an altitude of 32 kilometres (20 mi). The atmosphere on Mars consists of 95% carbon dioxide (CO2), 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and contains only traces of oxygen, water, and methane. Since its atmosphere consists mainly of CO2, a known greenhouse gas, once the planet begins to heat, more CO2 enters the atmosphere from the frozen reserves on the poles, adding to the greenhouse effect. This means that the two processes of building the atmosphere and heating it would augment one another, favoring terraforming. However, on a large scale, controlled application of certain techniques (explained below) over enough time to achieve sustainable changes would be required to make this hypothesis a reality. Building the Martian atmosphere Water Content An important step in building the martian atmosphere would be the importation of water, that can be obtained, for example, from ice asteroids or from ice moons of Jupiter or Saturn, beyond the water ice already present at the Martian north pole. Sources of Water A substantial, nearby source of water is the dwarf planet Ceres, which, according to various studies accounts for 25% to 33% of the mass of the Asteroid Belt. Ceres' mass is approximately 9.43 x 10^20 kg. Estimates of how much of Ceres is water varies widely but 20% is a typical estimate and it is thought that much of the water forms the outer or near-surface level. The mass of Ceres' water equals approximately 1.886 x 1020 kg using the previous estimates. The total mass of Mars is approximately 6.42 x 10^23 kg. Therefore a very rough estimate is that the amount of water on Ceres equals approximately 0.03 % of the total mass of Mars. Transporting a significant portion of this water, or water from any of the icy moons, could prove difficult. Any attempt to perturb the orbit of Ceres in order to add it whole to Mars (similar to the strategy of using a gravitational tractor for asteroid deflection,) must account for any resultant perturbation of the martian orbit and account for prolonged geological tumult, such as reestablishment of hydrostatic equilibrium, that could result from impact. Carbon Dioxide Sublimation There is presently enough carbon dioxide (CO2) as ice in the Martian south pole and absorbed by regolith (soil) around the planet that, if sublimated to gas by a climate warming of only a few degrees, would increase the atmospheric pressure to 300 millibars, which is comparable to that at the peak of Mount Everest. While this would not be breathable by humans, it would eliminate the present need for pressure suits, melt the water ice at Mars' north pole (flooding the northern basin), and bring the year-round climate above freezing over approximately half of Mars' surface. This would enable the introduction of plant life, particularly plankton in the new northern sea, to start converting the atmospheric CO2 into oxygen. Ammonia Importation Another, more intricate method, uses ammonia as a powerful greenhouse gas (as it is possible that large amounts of it exist in frozen form on asteroidal objects orbiting in the outer Solar System), it may be possible to move these (for example, by using very large Orion type nuclear pulse rockets to re-direct and steer them into interception orbits with Mars' atmosphere. Since ammonia (NH3) is high in nitrogen it might also take care of the problem of needing a buffer gas in the atmosphere. Sustained smaller impacts will also contribute to increases in the temperature and mass of the atmosphere. The need for a buffer gas is a challenge that will face any potential atmosphere builders. On Earth, nitrogen is the primary atmospheric component making up 77% of the atmosphere. Mars would require a similar buffer gas component although not necessarily as much. Still, obtaining significant quantities of nitrogen, argon or some other comparatively inert gas is difficult. Hydrocarbons Importation Another way would be to import methane or other hydrocarbons, which are common in Titan's atmosphere (and on its surface). The methane could be vented into the atmosphere where it would act to compound the greenhouse effect. Methane (or other hydrocarbons) also can be helpful to produce a quick increase for the insufficient martian atmospheric pressure. These gases also can be used for production (at the next step of terraforming of Mars) of water and CO2 for martian atmosphere, by reaction: CH4 + 4 Fe2O3 => CO2 + 2 H2O + 8 FeO This reaction could probably be initiated by heat or by martian solar UV-irradiation. Large amounts of the resulting products (CO2 and water) are necessary to initiate the photosynthetic processes. Hydrogen Importation Hydrogen importation could also be done for atmospheric and hydrospheric engineering.For example, hydrogen could react with iron(III) oxide from the martian soil, that would give water as a product: H2 + Fe2O3 => H2O + 2FeO Depending on the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, importation and reaction of hydrogen would produce heat, water and graphite via the Bosch reaction. Alternatively, reacting hydrogen with the carbon dioxide atmosphere via the Sabatier reaction would yield methane and water. Using Perfluorocarbons Since long-term climate stability would be required for sustaining a human population, the use of especially powerful greenhouse gases possibly including halocarbons such as chlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs) and perfluorocarbons (or PFCs) has been suggested. These gases are the most cited candidates for artificial insertion into the Martian atmosphere because of their strong effect as a greenhouse gas. This can conceivably be done by construction of CFC Atmospheric Diffusion Plants – such as the one pictured in the image. CFC diffusion into the atmosphere would need to be sustained while the planet changes chemically and becomes warmer. In order to sublimate the south polar CO2 glaciers, Mars would require the introduction of approximately 0.3 microbars of CFC (chloro-fluoro-carbons) into Mars' atmosphere. CFC are powerful greenhouse gases that are thousands of times more effective at warming than CO2. The 0.3 microbars needed would mass approximately 39 million metric tons, which is about three times the amount of CFC manufactured on Earth from 1972 to 1992. Mineralogical surveys of Mars have found significant amounts of the ores necessary to produce the amount of CFC gas required. A proposal to mine fluorine-containing minerals as a source of CFCs and PFCs is supported by the belief that since the quantities present are expected to be at least as common on Mars as on Earth, this process could sustain the production of sufficient quantities of optimal greenhouse compounds (CF3SCF3, CF3OCF2OCF3, CF3SCF2SCF3, CF3OCF2NFCF3) to maintain Mars at 'comfortable' temperatures, as a method of maintaining an Earth-like atmosphere produced previously by some other means. Adding Heat Adding heat and conserving the heat present is a particularly important stage of this process, as heat from the Sun is the primary driver of planetary climate. As the planet would become warmer through various methods the CO2 on the polar caps would sublime into the atmosphere and would further contribute to the warming effect. The tremendous air currents generated by the moving gasses would create large, sustained dust storms, which would heat (through absorbing solar radiation) the molecules in the atmosphere. Orbiting Mirrors Mirrors made of thin aluminized PET film could be placed in orbit around Mars to increase the total insolation it receives. This would direct the sunlight onto the surface and could increase the planet's surface temperature directly. The mirror could be positioned as a statite, using its effectiveness as a solar sail to orbit in a stationary position relative to Mars, near the poles, to sublimate the CO2 ice sheet and contribute to the warming greenhouse effect.

Mars Colony Terraforming Program Image Links: Mars Colony: The Expanding Frontier Discarding Stages Discarding Stages: A New Perspective Prospecting Callisto Callisto Production Field Flight Control Station Command & Control Deck Crew Quarters Mars Colony Heavy Lift Nuclear SSTO Mars Colony Nuclear SSTO Launch Mars Colony Nuclear SSTO Approach to Touchdown Nuclear SSTO Orbital Operations Nuclear SSTO Diagram Mars Terraforming Program Orion Launch Site Callisto Orbital Loading Operation Dusk Orbit: Mission Support Transporter Unloading Mars Terraforming Program Vehicle Class Chart Mars Terraforming: The Growth of Industry Orion Impulse Launcher Assembly Outward Bound Mars Terraforming Program Mission Cycle Chart I Orbital Ring Orbital Ring – Alternative Perspective Mission Titan: Saturn Approach Titan Orbit: Mission CV & Service Vehicle Touch Down On Titan Aero Shell Ejection Production Rig & Cargo Lander Touch-Down Reusable Tanker & Interplanetary Orion Reusable Tanker MST Separation Reusable Tanker Atmospheric Entry Reusable Tanker Vertical Descent Reusable Tanker Touchdown Titan Crew Vehicle Flight Control Station Titan CV Flight Control Entry Profile View Titan CV Crew Ascent/Descent /Entry Stations Titan CV Crew Stations Entry Profile View Surface to Orbit Tanker Loading & Refueling Titan Production Site Titan CV EVA Prep Deck Titan CV EVA Prep Deck – Detail View Titan CV Main Airlock Deck & Surface EVA Jupiter Passage Callisto Base Module Transport Periapsis: Racing The Clouds Of Jove

cool work

Very nice image and explanation ! I like the gaz diffusion cloud effect around the towers and the near-but-not-totally martian ambiance showing the process is going on.

Excellent image; modeling and atmo. Corrie

Very nicely thought out. One thing about the flourocarbons, though. They would inhibit the creation of any ozone layer. Though, compared to other challenges, like nitrogen importation, that's probably not the most pressing concern.

Thanks geirla, The article presents a range of terraforming strategies. I considered the deffusion of chlorofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons during the early decades of ammonia and methane importation as a means to assist in kick starting the warming process – which would be accelerated by the sublimation of the polar ice caps via the orbiting polar mirrors. CFC and PFC might be re-instated later as a maintenance procedure – there seems little doubt that the Martian atmosphere would require long term maintenance. I had ruled out some of these strategies early on. One strategy I elected to eliminate as a candidate process is the asteroid bombardment method of delivery due to the obvious undesirability of the ground and atmospheric shock waves generated – my human population is living on the surface through the terraforming process. This choice played a role in shaping the design of the materials return carrier spacecraft and spawned the need for a heavy vehicle to soft land the materials on the Martian surface. See the posts at the following links: Mars Terraforming Program Mission Cycle Chart I Nuclear SSTO Diagram